Last year, two researchers from the Paris School of Economics, writing in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, promoted a new theory about how we perceive time. “Instead of considering an ‘internal timer’ that gives rise to differences in time perception,” they wrote, “we adopt the idea that individuals ‘experience’ time.” A big part of that experience is emotions, and the researchers theorize that the more positive an anticipated emotion, the slower that time will pass. If a person is waiting for something pleasant to occur, say, opening presents on Christmas morning or entering a warm Metro station after a long, chilly walk, she will experience positive emotions like joy that will improve the situation. Time will seem to expand, and she will experience impatience. But if a person is awaiting a negative experience, like a trip to the dentist or having to make that chilly walk, she will experience experience negative emotions such as grief or frustration. Time will seem to pass more quickly, but she will undergo anxiety. “Time is not absolute,” the researchers write, “but can rather have a certain ‘elasticity’ or the person, which will depend on the kind of emotions she experiences.”
marți, 7 decembrie 2010
vineri, 26 noiembrie 2010
Compoziţie sociálă
"Momentul iunie 1958, retragerea trupelor sovietice, mi-a atras atenţia mai ales printr-un cuvânt ce apărea în documentele de partid şi care mi se părea, din punct de vedere semantic, straşnic de comic, nebănuindu-i, însă, şi sensurile uşor tragice: „împăciuitorism“. Rezoluţia Plenarei din iunie 1958 cerea „demascarea şi smulgerea din rădăcini a împăciuitorismului“ de care era acuzat rectorul nostru, un academician biolog, şi de care aveau să fie acuzaţi curând, în „demascările“ publice organizate de partid, universitari, oameni de cultură sau artişti. A fost contextul în care, la 12 martie 1959, în marea sală a Căminului 303 din Cotroceni, sub conducerea prim-secretarului pe Bucureşti al Partidului Muncitoresc Român (PMR), Florian Dănălache, s-a organizat o asemenea „demascare“. Timp de 12 ore, în faţa a mii de studenţi, judecarea profesorilor noştri s-a făcut cu acuze brutale şi hilare şi cu apostrofări mitocăneşti, ajungându-se până la sugerarea unor atitudini filonaziste. Replici demne ale dascălilor Pippidi, Berza şi Nestor au fost aplaudate nu o dată la scenă deschisă. În cele din urmă aceştia au invocat numele meu, eu refuzând să-i acuz, solidarizându-mă, dimpotrivă, cu cauza profesorilor. Trei săptămâni mai târziu, o altă „demascare“ a fost organizată în Facultatea de Istorie, pentru sancţionarea mea. Capetele de acuzare care au condus la excluderea mea din Uniunea Tineretului Muncitoresc (UTM) şi la exmatricularea din facultate au fost: împăciuitorism, antisovietism, apartenenţa la un grup spiritualist, elitism, precum şi faptul că nu fusesem pionier."
sâmbătă, 13 noiembrie 2010
Analític
miercuri, 10 noiembrie 2010
Tendínțe
luni, 8 noiembrie 2010
jocul ipotezelor
Brâncuşi: Opera singură exprimă răspunsul. Adică, dacă spune sau nu spune ceva".Eu am citat o definiţie a artei, aparţinînd lui Charles Maurras: "Arta este jocul aparenţelor". "Numai atît?!", a zis Brâncuşi.
duminică, 27 iunie 2010
pretéxt
luni, 21 iunie 2010
După 1945, spiritul european a continuat să reţină, vlăguit şi confuz, nomenclatorul profesional al reflexiei. Măcar nominal, filosofii n-au dispărut. Filosofia nu s-a retras, însă filosofii au devenit altceva. Figura solitarului care rosteşte oracular inepţii existenţiale sau refuză să fie clar, invocând o dramă lingvistică privată, a înlocuit statura clasică a filosofului de sistem. În mod esenţial, Filosoful s-a privatizat, afişând, totuşi, pretenţia unui discurs pentru colectivitate. Filosoful nu mai e alături de, ci deasupra comunităţii pe care o trece prin propriile insatisfacţii şi frustrări personale. Comunitatea trebuie să îl urmeze în prizonieratul ceţos al conceptelor progresiste: eliberare, insurgenţă, antialienare. În mare, postura marxistă a câştigat partida, implantând în mijlocul agorei detractori spirituali ai tradiţiei comunitare. Egoul gânditorului e punctul de plecare, incipit-ul spiritual fără recurs. Filosoful pe care societăţile îl caută în momente de criză a dispărut. În locul lui, noul star filosofic, consacrat de busturile fosforescente ale unor Derrida, Foucault sau Chomsky, e exact atât: o replică, un mulaj mai mult sau mai puţin defectuos al nesiguranţei mascate în cultul deconstrucţiei.
sâmbătă, 19 iunie 2010
Perceptíbil
marți, 8 iunie 2010
Mémoires improvisés.
marți, 1 iunie 2010
jurnalistul
18 :
Donald Crowhurst, specialist englez în electrotehnică, în vârstă de treizeci şi şase de ani, căsătorit, patru copii, pasionat de navigaţie, se hotărăşte să participe la "Globul de Aur", competiţie organizată de ziarul Sunday Times: ocolul pământului pentru navigatorii solitari. Concurenţii sunt liberi să plece când vor, din primăvară până la 31 octombrie 1968; nu mai târziu, pentru că altfel s-ar găsi în mijlocul oceanului în plină iarnă, când furtunile periclitează navigaţia. Va câştiga cinci mii de lire sterline navigatorul care se va fi întors primul în patrie, după ce va fi făcut ocolul pământului; deoarece concurenţii nu pleacă toţi în aceeaşi perioadă, va câştiga alte cinci mii de lire sterline acela care, chiar dacă nu s-a întors primul, va fi făcut ocolul globului în timpul cel mai scurt.
20 :
La 20 august 1850 a murit Balzac. Critica literară de mult nu mai numără anii scurşi de la acel atac. S-o lăsăm în pace. Precum Balzac, nu vom putea renunţa la personaj decât riscând să renunţăm la noi înşine. Persoana a treia, dacă nu e amăgire, dacă nu e fum, e o stratagemă pentru a aduce ..
vineri, 28 mai 2010
pergamént
marți, 25 mai 2010
bolovani de aur
O mare necunoscută! Libertatea este o nălucă după care gonim mereu s-o ajungem, pentru că nimic nu e mai frumos decât ce se află în zare. Atunci când ni se pare că am pus mâna pe ea dăm peste un alt vis, peste alt dor nebun de-a respira descătuşaţi de orice povară. Fiecare generaţie se naşte cu alte idei despre libertate. Eu am atins-o citind pătimaş, scriind sau mergând desculţ prin iarbă.
* MT: Care a fost libertatea care v-a plăcut cel mai mult? Cea de la 18 ani?
Nu. Cea de la 5, 6, 8, 10 până la 16 ani, când mă urcam în cireş sau mă aruncam de pe mal în gârlă, când mă pierdeam prin lanurile de floarea-soarelui... Vezi ce bucolic sunt?
* MT: E libertatea copilăriei.
Este vraja copilăriei. Singura de care dispunem şi la o vârstă înaintată. Vraja copilăriei e cea care defineşte acea parte a artiştilor români exilaţi din contemporaneitate: Eminescu, Sadoveanu, George Călinescu, Tudor Vianu etc. Veţi găsi în ei toată vatra de vis a României în care se rosteşte pe sine versul: Nu credeam să-nvăţ a muri vreodată. Libertatea copilăriei este unică, de neatins şi, din nefericire, irepetabilă.
luni, 17 mai 2010
Lumea valorilor
Viaţa neavând un scop în sine, care este conţinutul acestui ideal? Pentru a răspunde, D. Gusti examineză, pe rând, soluţiile date acestei probleme, înlăturând succesiv: autoritarismul, care nu e decât un sistem de morală practică, şi scepticismul, care neagă existenţa unui criteriu absolut, şi cu el posibilitatea eticei, întemeiat pe observaţii superficiale şi pe contradicţii construite în mod fictiv. El înlătură apoi rigorismul formalist, care neglijează realitatea psihică inerentă operaţiei de motivare, căutând criteriul actului moral în conformitatea, imposibilă, a voinţei cu legea morală, precum şi eudemonismul, hedonist şi utilitarist, care, în neputinţa determinării calitative a bunului suprem, aritmetizează un bun social relativ şi maxim. Pentru a stabili un criteriu temeinic de valorificare a faptelor omeneşti, D. Gusti adoptă un punct de vedere original, precedând la o analiză funcţională a structurii procesului motivării. El constată astfel, împotriva intelectualismului, că voinţa omenească e întemeiată pe afecţiuni tipice: iubire de sine, simpatie şi religiozitate, stabilind totuşi, şi împotriva sentimentalismului, că raţiunea suficientă a actului moral nu stă în aceste afecte, ci în elementul intelectual al actului de voinţă: reprezentarea anticipată a efectului, care generează scopul şi mijlocul, prin combinare cu fundamentul afectiv. Cu ajutorul acestei concepţii, D. Gusti înlătură antinomia libertate-determinism, arătând cum în actul motivării finalitatea nu exclude cauzalitatea, ci dimpotrivă o presupune, fără ca totuşi acestă presupunere să compromită libertatea raţională, motivată, a agentului moral.
duminică, 16 mai 2010
socio-politic românesc
vineri, 14 mai 2010
neîndoiós
Dorim şi avem dreptul să aflăm cine şi cum s-a pus în slujba răului. Suntem extrem de îndârjiţi, pentru că timp de două decenii s-a făcut tot ce a fost posibil ca urmele să fie şterse iar accesul nostru la adevăr să fie atât de limitat, încât să devină, practic, irelevant. Probele ni se oferă cu ţârâita, bine pieptănate, abil direcţionate şi cu un potenţial uriaş de a ne întuneca judecata. Dacă ne livrăm necondiţionat acestui demers, riscăm să devenim, încă o dată, parte a Complicităţii.'...
marți, 11 mai 2010
Istoria comunismului povestită
Iuri Petrovski în biroul directorului Grigori Dekanozov.
Directorul: Dumneavoastră înţelegeţi, dragă Iuri Petrovski, că astăzi nimeni, nimeni nu trebuie să rămână în afara luminii artei şi literaturii. Concepţia noastră ştiinţifică despre societate spune că omul se află în centrul atenţiei partidului. Noua noastră concepţie umanistă, aşa cum am fost învăţaţi de Marele Lenin şi de Marele Stalin, spune că socialismul nu este posibil fără transformarea omului. Iar arta, literatura, toate astea au un rol imens în transformarea omului... Din această cauză mi-am pus eu întrebarea: şi bolnavii mintal? Nu sunt şi ei oameni? Nu trebuie să fie transformaţi şi ei? N-ar trebui să beneficieze şi ei de binefacerile artei, ale literaturii? În măsura posibilului, bineînţeles... Eu unul ...
luni, 10 mai 2010
LecŢia lui GOYA
Goya şi-a smuls aici de la gât eşarfa elegantă de mătase albă, şi-a aruncat jobenul, şi-a dezbrăcat redingota. Toreadorul e în pauza coridei. Obosit şi îngândurat. Acum urmează partea cea mai aspră a partidei sale cu destinul. O va juca fără public, în “Casa surdului”, crezând mai departe în arta sa, chiar dacă există clipe când nu mai crede în victoria sa. Privirea e amară, însă la fel de orgolioasă. El, Goya, nu mai poate fi comparat acum cu Watteau, cu Guardi, cu Fragonard. S-a şezat lângă Rembrandt şi nimeni nu se mai îndoieşte că locul său era acolo. E presbit, surd, mizantrop, singur, închis în tăcerea sa. Dar atenţie. Acest surd face uneori şi tăcerea să devină vehementă. Cum zicea Nietzsche, cuvintele cele mai discrete aduc uraganul.
joi, 29 aprilie 2010
high touch
luni, 26 aprilie 2010
Timpul ca pseudonim
Paradoxul împrumută vieţii farmecul unei absurdităţi expresive. Îi întoarce ceea ce ea i a atribuit dintru început."
vineri, 23 aprilie 2010
Asfinţit de Europă, răsărit de Asie
Rostind acestea, doamna în mantilă violet şi cu mănuşi albe se pierdu spre fundul lacului, sau poate în constelaţiile răsturnate, puii de zeu egiptean se retraseră în fântâna cu mir, ierburile şi lanurile de grâu se umplură de arome puternice. Din toate zările năvăli miros de pelin. Şi, peste el, mirosul îndurerat al ovăzului sălbatic. O crenguţă de negară, rănită cândva de un bob de grindină, căzu c-un pocnet sec. Alta îi luă locul, şovăind, dar nu-şi duse împlinirea până la capăt. Rămase pe drumul ei ireal, asemeni crucilor de pe toată întinderea câmpiei, care lăsau grâul să le lunece pe sub braţele lor de piatră spre alte şiruri de gorgane purtând nume de cai, de oi, de fiare sălbatice şi foarte rar de oameni. Pe una din ele sta scris că fusese ridicată în cinstea sergentului Ion, căzut, probabil, în lupte, cu gândul la lanul lui de grâu. "
joi, 15 aprilie 2010
Sediţiúne
duminică, 11 aprilie 2010
Etnológic
luni, 5 aprilie 2010
De altminteri
...DOMNUL BĂTRÎN: Dacă iei două lăbuţe din opt, de la două pisici... JEAN: Chiar în momentul ăsta se joacă una. Nu lăsa să-ţi scape prilejul. DOMNUL BĂTRÎN: Am putea avea o pisică cu şase lăbuţe... JEAN: Ar fi o excelentă iniţiere în viaţa artistică a vremii noastre. DOMNUL BĂTRÎN: ...şi o alta fără nici o lăbuţă. BERENGER: Ai dreptate, ai dreptate. Mă voi pune la punct cum ai spus. LOGICIANUL: In cazul acesta va fi vorba de-o pisică privilegiată.
vineri, 2 aprilie 2010
Concludént
DOMNUL BĂTRÎN: Dar şi cîinele meu tot patru labe are.
LOGICIANUL: Atunci e pisică.
BERENGER (lui Jean): Eu de-abia mai am putere să trăiesc. Cred că nici n-am chef de viaţa.
DOMNUL BĂTRÎN (către Logician, după ce a reflectat îndelung): Care va să zică, logic, cîinele meu e o pisică.
LOGICIANUL: Logic, da. Insă şi contrariul e la fel de adevărat.
BERENGER (lui Jean): Mă apasă singurătatea. Ca şi societatea.
JEAN: Te contrazici. Cine te apasă: solitudinea sau multitudinea? Zici că eşti un gînditor, dar n-ai nici o logică.
DOMNUL BĂTRÎN (Logicianului): E foarte frumoasă logica.
LOGICIANUL: Cu condiţia să nu abuzezi de ea.
BERENGER (lui Jean): E anormal să trăieşti.
JEAN: Dimpotrivă. Nimic nu e mai natural. Dovada: toată lumea trăieşte. BERENGER: Dar morţii sînt mai numeroşi decît viii. Iar numărul morţilor creşte. Viii sînt rari.
JEAN: Morţii nu există, e cazul s-o spunem!... Ah! ah! (Rîde-n hohote.) Şi morţii te îngreunează? Cum poţi să simţi pe umeri greutatea a ceva care nu există?... BERENGER: Mă întreb şi eu dacă exist sau nu!
JEAN: Dragul meu, nu exişti fiindcă nu gîndeşti. Ia gîndeşte-te un pic, să vezi cum exişti.
LOGICIANUL (Domnului Bătrîn): Alt silogism: „Toate pisicile sînt muritoare. Socrate e muritor. Deci Socrate e pisică".
DOMNUL BĂTRÎN: Şi are patru labe. Asta aşa-i, pe motanul meu îl cheamă Socrate. LOGICIANUL: Păi vezi...
JEAN (lui Berenger): In fond, eşti un farsor. Un mincinos. Spui că viaţa nu te interesează, numai că - totuşi- cineva te interesează.
BERENGER: Cine?
JEAN: Coleguţa de birou care a trecut pe-aici adineauri. Eşti îndrăgostit de ea!
DOMNUL BĂTRÎN (Logicianului): Care va să zică Socrate a fost pisică.
LOGICIANUL: Logica tocmai ne-a revelat acest fapt."
joi, 1 aprilie 2010
Lost in Translation
I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong... (Bertrand Russell)
I'm an idealist. I don't know where I'm going, but I'm on my way... (Carl Sandburg)
I'm still an atheist, thank God...( Luis Bunuel)
One man that has a mind and knows it can always beat ten men who haven't and don't... (George Bernard Shaw )
Great spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities. The latter cannot understand it when a man does not thoughtlessly submit to hereditary prejudices, but honestly and courageously uses his intelligence and fulfills the duty to express the results of his thought in clear form...( Albert Einstein)
I never teach my pupils. I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn. ..(Albert Einstein)
Experience teaches only the teachable... (Aldous Huxley )
The true teacher defends his pupils against his own personal influence... (Amos Bronson Alcott )
An Englishman thinks he is moral when he is only uncomfortable... (George Bernard Shaw)
marți, 30 martie 2010
Sense and Sensibility
luni, 29 martie 2010
A light man
7th. – My sail is in sight; it’s at hand; I have all but boarded the vessel. I received this morning a letter from the best man in the world. Here it is:–
DEAR MAX – I see this very moment, in the old newspaper which had already passed through my hands without yielding up its most precious item, the announcement of your arrival in New York. To think of your having perhaps missed the welcome you had a right to expect from me! Here it is, dear Max – as cordial as you please. When I say I have just read of your arrival, I mean that twenty minutes have elapsed by the clock.
Flowers
- Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself.
What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen; looking at the flowers, at the trees with the smoke winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking until Peter Walsh said, “Musing among the vegetables?”—was that it?—“I prefer men to cauliflowers”—was that it? He must have said it at breakfast one morning when she had gone out on to the terrace—Peter Walsh. He would be back from India one of these days, June or July, she forgot which, for his letters were awfully dull; it was his sayings one remembered; his eyes, his pocket-knife, his smile, his grumpiness and, when millions of things had utterly vanished—how strange it was!—a few sayings like this about cabbages.
vineri, 26 martie 2010
The Waves
As they neared the shore each bar rose, heaped itself, broke and swept a thin veil of white water across the sand. The wave paused, and then drew out again, sighing like a sleeper whose breath comes and goes unconsciously. Gradually the dark bar on the horizon became clear as if the sediment in an old wine-bottle had sunk and left the glass green. Behind it, too, the sky cleared as if the white sediment there had sunk, or as if the arm of a woman couched beneath the horizon had raised a lamp and flat bars of white, green and yellow spread across the sky like the blades of a fan. Then she raised her lamp higher and the air seemed to become fibrous and to tear away from the green surface flickering and flaming in red and yellow fibres like the smoky fire that roars from a bonfire. Gradually the fibres of the burning bonfire were fused into one haze, one incandescence which lifted the weight of the woollen grey sky on top of it and turned it to a million atoms of soft blue. The surface of the sea slowly became transparent and lay rippling and sparkling until the dark stripes were almost rubbed out. Slowly the arm that held the lamp raised it higher and then higher until a broad flame became visible; an arc of fire burnt on the rim of the horizon, and all round it the sea blazed gold.
joi, 25 martie 2010
Hegel in France
Marxists in the 1920s paid tribute to the German dialectician. Among the reasons suggested by Koyré for the lack of interest in Hegel were the obscurity of Hegel's writing, the strength of Cartesian and Kantian philosophical traditions, Hegel's Protestantism, but, above all, the incredulity of the French toward Hegel's "strict identity of logical synthesis and historical becoming." [3] On the contrary for French rationalists, history was separate from reason or logic, which was eternal, outside time. If this was the situation, how can we account for the abrupt turn to Hegel in the 1940s? In the eyes of many converts to Hegel, the catastrophic defeat of France in 1940 had discredited liberal-bourgeois intellectual and political traditions, leaving the nation in a conceptual vacuum. The only moral force left in France, on the eve of the Liberation, came from the Resistance movement, which had been dominated by politically progressive groups. In the estimate of Henri Lefebvre, after the Liberation, there was no longer bourgeois thought calling itself such."[4] The experience of the war and the Resistance "transformed the basic givens of intellectual life in France: the themes of reflection, the problems, concepts, and attitudes."[5] After 1944, there was a longing for basic renewal, social, political, and intellectual. With a combined socialist and Communist vote reaching a majority, intellectuals harbored the dream of imminent and radical social transformation. During the hopeful but finally disillusioning post-war years, the "decisive philosophical event" was the discovery of the Hegelian dialectics There were thus direct links between the collapse of the old bourgeois world, the expectations of socialism, and the emergence of interest in Hegel.
miercuri, 24 martie 2010
Le Rire
Des choses que l'on peut révoquer en doute
(§6) Et par la même raison, encore que ces choses générales, à savoir un corps, des yeux, une tête, des mains, et autres semblables, pussent être imaginaires,
marți, 23 martie 2010
(play, 1909)
BANKS
No, my lord, no stranger has arrived. But I’ll see if anyone has come in – or who has. (Then as he perceives LADY SANDGATE, who has not heard the foregoing.) Lord John, my lady. (Exit BANKS to left.)
LORD JOHN
I luckily find you at least, Lady Sandgate – they tell me Theign’s off somewhere.
LADY SANDGATE
Only in the park: open to-day for a school-feast from Dedborough – as you may have made out from the avenue; giving good advice, at the top of his lungs, to four hundred and fifty children.
LORD JOHN
(Amused.) Oh, he’s so great on such occasions that I’m sorry to be missing it.
LADY SANDGATE
I’ve had to miss it – I’ve just left them. But he had even then been going on for twenty minutes, and I dare say that if you care to take a look you’ll find him still at it.
The outcry
Lord John addressed her as with a significant manner.....
luni, 22 martie 2010
Ieri cu vedere spre Azi
.
The Doctrine of Being
being inwards, its sinking deeper into itself. Thus the explication of the notion in the sphere of being does two things: it brings out the totality of being, and it abolishes the immediacy of being, or the form of being as such. 85. ] Being itself and the special sub-categories of it which follow, as well as those of logic in general, may be looked upon as definitions of the Absolute, or metaphysical definitions of God : at least the first and third category in every triad may,—the first, where the thought-form of the triad is formulated in its simplicity, and the third, being the return from differentiation to a simple self-reference. For a metaphysical definition of God is the expression of His nature in thoughts as such: and logic embraces all thoughts so long as they continue in the thought-form. The second sub-category in each triad, where the grade of thought is in its differentiation, gives, on the other hand, a definition of the finite. The objection to the form of definition is that it implies a something in the mind's eye on which these predicates may fasten. Thus even the Absolute (though it pur-ports to express God in the style and character of thought) in comparison with its predicate (which really and distinctly expresses in thought what the subject does not), is as yet only an inchoate pretended thought—the indeterminate subject of predicates yet to come. The thought, which is here the matter of sole importance, is contained only in the predicate : and hence the propositional form, like the said subject, viz. the Absolute, is a mere superfluity (cf. § 31, and below, on the Judgment). Each of the three spheres of the logical idea proves to be a systematic whole of thought-terms, and a phase of the Absolute. This is the case with Being, containing the three grades of quality, quantity, and measure. Quality is, in the first place, the character identical with being: so identical, that a thing ceases to be what it is, if it loses its quality. Quantity, on the contrary, is the character external to being, and does not affect the being at all. Thus e.g. a house remains what it is, whether it be greater or smaller; and red remains red, whether it be brighter or darker. Measure, the third grade of being, which is the unity of the first two, is a qualitative quantity. All things have their measure : i. e. the quantitative terms of their existence, their being so or so great, does not matter within certain limits; but when these limits are exceeded by an additional more or less, the things cease to be what they were. From measure follows the advance to the second sub-division of the idea, Essence.
duminică, 21 martie 2010
Then and Now
Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose.
[ii]
BIAGIO BUONACCORSI had had a busy day. He was tired, but being a man of methodical habit before going to bed made a note in his diary. It was brief: "The City sent a man to Imola to the Duke." Perhaps because he thought it of no importance he did not mention the man's name: it was Machiavelli. The Duke was Caesar Borgia.
It had been not only a busy day, but a long one, for Biagio had set forth from his house at dawn. With him on a stout pony went his nephew, Piero Giacomini, whom
Machiavelli had consented to take with him. It happened to be Piero's eighteenth birthday, October 6th, 1502, and so was a fitting day for him to go out into the world for the first time. He was a well-set-up youth, tall for his age and of an agreeable aspect. Under his uncle's guidance, for his mother was a widow, he had received a good education; he could write a good hand and turn a comely phrase not only in Italian, but in Latin. On the advice of Machiavelli, who passionately admired the ancient Romans, he had acquired more than a cursory knowledge of their history. Machiavelli cherished the conviction that men are always the same and have the same passions, so that when circumstances are similar the same causes must lead to the same effects; and thus, by bearing in mind how the Romans coped with a given situation men of a later day might conduct themselves with prudence and efficiency.
It was the wish both of Biagio and his sister that Piero should enter the government service in which Biagio held a modest post under his friend Machiavelli.
The mission on which Machiavelli was now going seemed a good opportunity for the boy to learn something of affairs, and Biagio knew that he could not have a better mentor. The matter had been settled on the spur of the moment, for it was only the day before that Machiavelli had been given his letter of credence to the Duke and his safe-conduct. Machiavelli was of an amiable disposition, a friend of his friends, and when Biagio asked him to take Piero with him immediately agreed. But the lad's mother, though she saw that it was a chance that could not be missed, was uneasy. He had never been parted from her before and he was young to go out into a hostile world; he was besides a good boy and she was afraid that Machiavelli would corrupt him, for it was notorious that Machiavelli was a gay fellow and a dissolute. He was, moreover, not in the least ashamed of it and would tell improper stories about
his adventures with women of the town and with maidservants at wayside inns which must bring a blush to a ....-
sâmbătă, 20 martie 2010
Russell's Paradox
The significance of Russell's paradox can be seen once it is realized that, using classical logic, all sentences follow from a contradiction. For example, assuming both P and ~P, any arbitrary proposition, Q, can be proved as follows: from P we obtain P ∨ Q by the rule of Addition; then from P ∨ Q and ~P we obtain Q by the rule of Disjunctive Syllogism. Because of this, and because set theory underlies all branches of mathematics, many people began to worry that, if set theory was inconsistent, no mathematical proof could be trusted completely. Russell's paradox ultimately stems from the idea that any coherent condition may be used to determine a set. As a result, most attempts at resolving the paradox have concentrated on various ways of restricting the principles governing set existence found within naive set theory, particularly the so-called Comprehension (or Abstraction) axiom. This axiom in effect states that any propositional function, P(x), containing x as a free variable can be used to determine a set. In other words, corresponding to every propositional function, P(x), there will exist a set whose members are exactly those things, x, that have property P.[3] It is now generally, although not universally, agreed that such an axiom must either be abandoned or modified. Russell's own response to the paradox was his aptly named theory of types. Recognizing that self-reference lies at the heart of the paradox, Russell's basic idea is that we can avoid commitment to R (the set of all sets that are not members of themselves) by arranging all sentences (or, equivalently, all propositional functions) into a hierarchy. The lowest level of this hierarchy will consist of sentences about individuals. The next lowest level will consist of sentences about sets of individuals.
de la Goya la Picasso
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vineri, 19 martie 2010
De Spinoza (1632-1677)
iv. Causal Parallelism
An obvious question to ask at this point is whether it is possible for finite modes falling under one attribute to act upon and determine finite modes falling under another attribute. Spinoza’s answer is an unambiguous no. Causal relations exist only among modes falling under the same attribute. His explanation for this may be traced back to an axiom set forth at the beginning of Book One:
IA4: The knowledge of an effect depends on, and involves, the knowledge of its cause.
Given this axiom, if a finite mode falling under one attribute were to have God as its cause insofar as he is considered under a different attribute, i.e., if it were to be caused by a finite mode falling under a different attribute, then the knowledge of that mode would involve the knowledge of that other attribute. Since it does not, that mode cannot have God as its cause insofar as he is considered under some other attribute. In other words, it cannot be caused by a finite mode falling under some other attribute. When applied to modes falling under those attributes of which we have knowledge – thought and extension – this has an enormously important consequence. There can be no causal interaction between ideas and bodies. This does not mean that ideas and bodies are unrelated to one another. Indeed, it is one of the best-known theses in the Ethics that the lines of causation that run among them are strictly parallel: IIP7: The order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things. In the demonstration of this proposition Spinoza says that it is a consequence of IA4 and leaves it at that. Nevertheless, it is apparent that this proposition has deep foundations in his substance monism. As thought and extension are not attributes of distinct substances, so ideas and bodies are not modes of distinct substances. They are “one and the same thing, but expressed two ways” (IIP7S). If ideas and bodies are one and the same thing, however, their order and connection must be the same. The doctrine of substance monism in this way insures that ideas and bodies, though causally independent, are causally parallel.
The Logic of Hegel
PRELIMINARY NOTION.
LOGIC IS THE SCIENCE OF THE PURE IDEA; pure, that is, because the Idea is in the abstract medium of Thought. This definition, and the others which occur in these introductory outlines, are derived from a survey of the whole system, to which accordingly they are subsequent. The same remark applies to all prefatory notion what-ever about philosophy. Logic might have been defined as the science of thought, and of its laws and characteristic forms. But thought, as thought, constitutes only the general medium, or qualifying circumstance, which renders the Idea distinctively logical. If we identify the Idea with thought, thought must not be taken in the sense of a method or form, but in the sense of the self-developing totality of its laws and peculiar terms. These laws are the work of thought itself, and not a fact which it finds and must submit to. From different points of view, Logic is either the hardest or the easiest of the sciences. Logic is hard, because it has to deal not with perceptions, nor, like geometry, with abstract representations of the senses, but with pure abstractions; and because it demands a force and facility of withdrawing into pure thought, of keeping firm hold on it, and of moving in such an element. Logic is easy, because its facts are nothing but our own thought and its familiar forms or terms: and these are the acmè of simplicity, the a b c of everything else. They are also what we are best acquainted with : such as, 'Is' and 'Is not' : quality and magnitude : being potential and being actual : one, many, and so on. But such an acquaintance only adds to the difficulties of the study; for while, on the one hand, we naturally think it is not worth our trouble to occupy ourselves any longer with things so familiar, on the other hand, the problem is to become acquainted with them in a new way, quite opposite to that in which we know them already.
The utility of Logic is a matter which concerns its bearings upon the student, and the training it may give for other purposes. This logical training consists in the exercise in thinking which the student has to go through (this science is the thinking of thinking) : and in the fact that he stores his head with thoughts, in their native unalloyed character. It is true that Logic, being the absolute form of truth, and another name for the very truth itself, is something more than merely useful. Yet if what is noblest, most liberal and most independent is also most useful, Logic has some claim to the latter character. Its utility must then be estimated at another rate than exercise in thought for the sake of the exercise.
(I) The first question is: What is the object of our science ? The simplest and most intelligible answer to this question is that Truth is the object of Logic. Truth is a
noble word, and the thing is nobler still.....
joi, 18 martie 2010
Reviewing
silence; they comment aloud upon the size of the holes, upon the skill of the workers, and advise the public which of the goods in the shop window is the best worth buying. The purpose of this paper is to rouse discussion as to the value of the reviewer's office--to the writer, to the public, to the reviewer and to literature. But a reservation must first be made-by "the reviewer "is meant the reviewer of imaginative literature--poetry, drama, fiction; not the reviewer of history, politics, economics. His is a different office, and for reasons not to be discussed here he fulfils it in the main so adequately and indeed admirably that his value is not in question. Has the reviewer, then, of imaginative literature any value at the present time to the writer, to the public, to the reviewer and to literature? And, if so, what? And if not, how could his function be changed, and made profitable? Let us broach these involved and complicated questions by giving one quick glance at the history of reviewing, since it may help to define the nature of a review at the present moment.
Since the review came into existence with the newspaper, that history is a brief one.
Hamlet was not reviewed, nor Paradise Lost. Criticism there was but criticism conveyed by word of mouth, by the audience in the theatre, by fellow writers in taverns and private work-shops. Printed criticism came into existence, presumably in a crude and primitive form, in the seventeenth century.
miercuri, 17 martie 2010
The Poets and the Animals
“I'll have to.”
“What is it on?”
“‘The Poets and the Animals.’ That's the title. The English Department is staging it. They are holding it in a seminar room, so I don't think they are expecting a big audience.”
“I'm glad it's on something she knows about. I find her philos-ophizing rather difficult to take.”
“Oh. What do you have in mind?”
“For instance what she was saying about human reason. Presumably she was trying to make a point about the nature of rational understanding. To say that rational accounts are merely a consequence of the structure of the human mind; that animals have their own accounts in accordance with the structure of their own minds, to which we don't have access because we don't share a language with them.”
“And what's wrong with that?”
“It's naive, John. It's the kind of easy, shallow relativism that impresses freshmen. Respect for everyone's worldview, the cow's worldview, the squirrel's worldview, and so forth. In the end it leads to total intellectual paralysis. You spend so much time respecting that you haven't time left to think.”
“Doesn't a squirrel have a worldview?”......
marți, 16 martie 2010
Ghosts
[She goes to the table and puts the lamp out. Sunrise. The glacier and the snow-peaks in the background glow in the morning light.]
Oswald [sits in the arm-chair with his back towards the landscape, without moving. Suddenly he says:] Mother, give me the sun.
Mrs. Alving [by the table, starts and looks at him.]. What do you say?
Oswald [repeats, in a dull toneless voice:] The sun. The sun.
Mrs. Alving [goes to him]. Oswald, what is the matter with you? [ Oswald seems to shrink together in the chair; all his muscles relax; his face is expressionless, his eyes have a glassy stare. MRS. ALVINGis quivering with terror]. What is this? [shrieks.] Oswald, what is the matter with you?
[Falls on her knees beside him and shakes him]. Oswald, Oswald! look at me! Don't you know me?
Oswald [tonelessly as before]. The sun. The sun.
Mrs. Alving [springs up in despair, intwines her hands in her hair and shrieks]. I can't bear it [whispers as though petrified] I can't bear it! Never! [Suddenly.] Where
has he got them? [Fumbles hastily in his breast.] Here! [Shrinks back a few steps and screams.] No, no, no! Yes!--No, no!
[She stands a few steps him with her hands twisted in her hair, and stares at him in speechless terror.]
Oswald [sits motionless as before and says:] The sun. The sun.
The Philosophers and the Animals
suitcase, and set off on the ninety-minute drive.
“A long flight,” he remarks. “You must be exhausted.”
“Ready to sleep,” she says; and indeed, en route, she falls asleep briefly, her head slumped against the window.
At six o'clock, as it is growing dark, they pull up in front of his home in suburban Waltham. His wife Norma and the children appear on the porch. In a show of affection that must cost her a great deal, Norma holds her arms out wide and says, “Elizabeth!” The two women embrace; then the children, in their well- brought-up though more subdued fashion, follow suit. Elizabeth Costello the novelist will be staying with them for the three days of her visit to Appleton College. It is not a period he is looking forward to. His wife and his mother do not get on. It would be better were she to stay at a hotel, but he cannot bring himself to suggest that. Hostilities are renewed almost at once. Norma has prepared a light supper. His mother notices that only three places have been.....
sâmbătă, 13 martie 2010
Logic and philosophy
.. While logically proper names (words such as "this" or "that" which refer to sensations of which an agent is immediately aware) do have referents associated with them, descriptive phrases (such as "the smallest number less than pi") should be viewed as a collection of quantifiers (such as "all" and "some") and propositional functions (such as "x is a number"). As such, they are not to be viewed as referring terms but, rather, as "incomplete symbols." In other words, they should be viewed as symbols that take on meaning within appropriate contexts, but that are meaningless in isolation. Thus, in the sentence
(1) The present King of France is bald, the definite description "The present King of France" plays a role quite different from that of a proper name such as "Scott" in the sentence
(2) Scott is bald.
Letting K abbreviate the predicate "is a present King of France" and B abbreviate the predicate "is bald," Russell assigns sentence (1) the logical form
(1′) There is an x such that (i) Kx, (ii) for any y, if Ky then y=x, and (iii) Bx.
Alternatively, in the notation of the predicate calculus, we have
(1″) ∃x[(Kx & ∀y(Ky → y=x)) & Bx].
In contrast, by allowing s to abbreviate the name "Scott," Russell assigns sentence (2) the very different logical form
(2′) Bs.
This distinction between various logical forms allows Russell to explain three important puzzles. The first concerns the operation of the Law of Excluded Middle and how this law relates to denoting terms. According to one reading of the Law of Excluded Middle, it must be the case that either "The present King of France is bald" is true or "The present King of France is not bald" is true. But if so, both sentences appear to entail the existence of a present King of France, clearly an undesirable result. Russell's analysis shows how this conclusion can be avoided. By appealing to analysis (1′), it follows that there is a way to deny (1) without being committed to the existence of a present King of France, namely by accepting that "It is not the case that there exists a present King of France who is bald" is true.
The second puzzle concerns the Law of Identity as it operates in (so-called) opaque contexts. Even though "Scott is the author of Waverley" is true, it does not follow that the two referring terms "Scott" and "the author of Waverley" are interchangeable in every situation. Thus although "George IV wanted to know whether Scott was the the author of Waverley" is true, "George IV wanted to know whether Scott was Scott" is, presumably, false. Russell's distinction between the logical forms associated with the use of proper names and definite descriptions shows why this is so.
To see this we once again let s abbreviate the name "Scott." We also let w abbreviate "Waverley" and A abbreviate the two-place predicate "is the author of." It then follows that the sentence
(3) s=s is not at all equivalent to the sentence
(4) ∃x[Axw & ∀y(Ayw → y=x) & x=s].
The third puzzle relates to true negative existential claims, such as the claim "The golden mountain does not exist." Here, once again, by treating definite descriptions as having a logical form distinct from that of proper names, Russell is able to give an account of how a speaker may be committed to the truth of a negative existential without also being committed to the belief that the subject term has reference. That is, the claim that Scott does not exist is false since
(5) ~∃x(x=s) is self-contradictory. (After all, there must exist at least one thing that is identical to s since it is a logical truth that s is identical to itself!) In contrast, the claim that a golden mountain does not exist may be true since, assuming that G abbreviates the predicate "is golden" and M abbreviates the predicate "is a mountain," there is nothing contradictory about
(6) ~∃x(Gx & Mx).
Russell's emphasis upon logical analysis also had consequences for his metaphysics. ...